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Every time you use your phone, open your computer or listen to your favorite music on AirPods, you are relying on critical minerals.

These materials are the tiny building blocks powering modern life. From lithium, cobalt, nickel and graphite in batteries to gallium in telecommunication systems that enable constant connectivity, critical minerals act as the essential vitamins of modern technology: small in volume but vital to function.

Yet the U.S. depends heavily on imports . In 2024 the U.S. imported 80% of it used, 100% of gallium and natural graphite, and 48% to 76% of lithium, nickel and cobalt, to name a few.

Rising global demand, high import dependency and growing geopolitical tensions have made critical mineral supply an − and one of the most urgent of our time.

That raises a question: Could the U.S. mine and process more critical minerals at home?

As a who leads ɫ����’s and an focused on energy innovation, we have been exploring the options and barriers for U.S. critical mineral production.

What’s Stopping Critical Minerals From Being Produced Domestically?

Let’s take a look at rare earth elements.

These elements are essential to modern technology, electric vehicles, energy systems and military applications. , neodymium is critical for making the strong magnets used in computer hard discs, lasers and wind turbines. Gadolinium is vital for MRI machines, while samarium and cerium play key roles in nuclear reactors and energy systems such as solar and wind power.

Despite their name, rare earth elements are . Their concentrations in the Earth’s crust are comparable to more commonly mined metals such as zinc and copper.

However, rare earth elements do not often occur in easily accessible, economically viable mineral forms or high-grade deposits. As a result, identifying resources with sufficiently high concentration and large volume is crucial for enabling their economic production.

The U.S. currently has only two domestic rare earth mining locations: ɫ���� and California.

In southeast ɫ����, rare earths are being produced as a byproduct of heavy mineral sand mining, but the produced rare earth concentrates are for refining into the materials used in renewable energy technologies and permanent magnets.

The other location is in Mountain Pass, California, where hard rock mining extracts a rare earth carbonate mineral called bastnaesite. Yet again, much of the material is sent abroad for refining. As a result, the entire supply chain − from mining to final use in products − stretches across continents.

Meeting the U.S. demand for rare earth elements and other critical minerals from operations within the United States will require more than just opening new mines. It will require developing and scaling up new technologies, as well as building processing operations.

Historically, processing has largely taken place overseas because of the environmental impacts, energy demand and regulatory constraints.

The Potential, But Long Road, to New Mines

Investment in exploration activity for critical minerals is rapidly increasing across the U.S.

In 2017 the U.S. Geological Survey launched the Earth Mapping Resources Initiative − known as − to identify of critical minerals within the country.

Some areas that appear promising for rare earth elements have lots of chemical weathering, in which rocks containing rare earth elements are broken down by reacting with water and air. Exploration is underway at several of these sites, including in in and .

Identifying a resource, however, is not the same as producing it.

Traditional mining can take a decade or two from exploration to production and up to 29 years in the U.S., . Although this timeline could be , companies might still face major uncertainties related to permitting, infrastructure development and, in some places, community opposition. Managing environmental impacts, such as and high , can further increase cost and extend project timelines.

Given that the exploration projects mentioned above are still in early stage, the U.S. needs additional, parallel efforts that can bring resources to the market at an accelerated pace.

Mining the Materials We Have Already Mined

One of the fastest ways to increase U.S. rare earth production may not require digging new holes in the ground − but rather returning to old ones.

The Atlantic coast region as a particularly promising area. What’s even better is that this region has already established extensive mining activities and mature infrastructure, which allows for much faster speed to market.

ɫ���� has mineral sand deposits that are rich in . Titanium and zirconium − both used in aerospace, energy and medical applications − are already mined in Florida and ɫ����. In southeast ɫ����, rare earth elements found with these heavy mineral sands are already being .

Kaolin, a white clay used in paper, paint and porcelain, has been mined in ɫ���� for over a century, and it can also contain rare earth elements. ɫ���� generates of kaolin annually, making it the leading U.S. producer and a large exporter. This also comes with millions of tons of mining and processing residues, or what’s known as tailings.

Recent suggest that there is significant potential for extracting .

The tailings are already mined and sitting on the surface. There is no need to drill or blast. That means existing infrastructure, faster timelines and lower costs and than new mining operations.

Technological innovations, such as , and , are now making mining these legacy wastes possible. New processing facilities could be built near existing kaolin or heavy mineral sand operations or former mine sites, bringing materials to market in a few years rather than decades.

The Future of Waste Mining

This approach is part of a broader strategy known as “waste mining,” “urban mining” or “mining the anthropogenic cycle.”

It involves the recovery of critical minerals from existing waste streams such as , and . It is also part of building a , where materials are reused and recycled rather than discarded.

The U.S. has the potential to catalyze new domestic supply chains for materials essential to national security and technology. Waste mining and recycling are critical pieces to ensure the long-term sustainability of these supply chains.

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